Woodrow Wilson Administration (1913–1921)

The Woodrow Wilson administration (1913–1921), spanning two terms, was a transformative era in American history. As the 28th President, Wilson led the United States through significant domestic reforms during the Progressive Era and through the tumultuous years of World War I. His presidency is characterized by sweeping economic changes, major legislative achievements, and his vision for global peace through the League of Nations.

Key Themes of the Wilson Administration

1. Progressive Reforms: Wilson expanded federal government intervention in economic and social policies, tackling issues like tariffs, banking, labor rights, and antitrust laws.
2. World War I Leadership: Wilson guided the U.S. from neutrality to active participation in the war, significantly influencing its outcome.
3. Global Peace Vision: His post-war advocacy for the League of Nations shaped international relations, though it faced opposition at home.

Domestic Policies: “The New Freedom”

Wilson’s domestic agenda, known as the New Freedom, focused on economic reform, reducing corporate power, and restoring competition.

1. Economic and Financial Reform

• Underwood Tariff Act (1913):
  • Reduced tariffs significantly to promote competition and lower consumer costs.
  • Introduced the first federal income tax under the newly ratified 16th Amendment, compensating for lost tariff revenue.
• Federal Reserve Act (1913):
  • Established the Federal Reserve System, creating a central banking structure to stabilize the economy and manage monetary policy.
  • The Federal Reserve remains a cornerstone of U.S. economic policy.
• Clayton Antitrust Act (1914):
  • Strengthened antitrust laws, prohibiting monopolistic practices and protecting labor unions from being targeted under antitrust laws.
  • Complemented the Federal Trade Commission Act (1914), which created the Federal Trade Commission (FTC) to prevent unfair business practices.

2. Labor and Social Reforms

• Adamson Act (1916):
  • Established an 8-hour workday for railroad workers, setting a precedent for broader labor reforms.
• Federal Farm Loan Act (1916):
  • Provided credit to farmers at low-interest rates, addressing rural economic needs.
• Keating-Owen Act (1916):
  • Aimed to eliminate child labor by prohibiting the interstate sale of goods produced by children. (Later ruled unconstitutional in Hammer v. Dagenhart [1918].)
• 19th Amendment (1920):
  • Wilson initially hesitated to support women’s suffrage but ultimately endorsed it, leading to the ratification of the amendment granting women the right to vote.

Foreign Policy Before and During World War I

1. Initial Neutrality

• Wilson maintained a policy of neutrality during the early years of World War I (1914–1917), reflecting widespread American isolationism.
• However, repeated German attacks on American shipping and the Zimmermann Telegram (a German proposal for a military alliance with Mexico) pushed the U.S. toward intervention.

2. U.S. Entry into World War I

• On April 6, 1917, the U.S. declared war on Germany, joining the Allies.
• Wilson framed the war as a moral crusade, stating that the U.S. must make the world “safe for democracy.”

3. Wartime Measures

• Selective Service Act (1917): Instituted a military draft, mobilizing millions of American troops.
• War Industries Board (1917): Coordinated industrial production to support the war effort.
• Espionage Act (1917) and Sedition Act (1918):
  • Restricted dissent and criticism of the government, leading to controversial crackdowns on civil liberties.

4. Post-War Diplomacy: The Treaty of Versailles and the League of Nations

• Fourteen Points (1918):
  • Wilson’s vision for a post-war world, emphasizing self-determination, free trade, disarmament, and the creation of a League of Nations to prevent future conflicts.
• Treaty of Versailles (1919):
  • Wilson played a central role in drafting the treaty, which ended World War I.
  • The treaty imposed harsh reparations on Germany and established the League of Nations.
• League of Nations:
  • Wilson’s most ambitious goal, the League was included in the treaty, but the U.S. Senate refused to ratify it, largely due to opposition led by Senator Henry Cabot Lodge.
  • Without U.S. participation, the League struggled to fulfill its mission.

Challenges and Controversies

1. Civil Liberties During Wartime:
   • The Espionage and Sedition Acts suppressed dissent, leading to arrests of anti-war activists like Eugene V. Debs.
   • These measures sparked debates about the balance between security and freedom.
2. Racial Segregation:
   • Wilson’s administration faced criticism for intensifying racial segregation in federal agencies.
   • His presidency marked setbacks for African Americans, despite the broader Progressive Era’s focus on social reform.
3. Labor Strikes and Red Scare:
   • After the war, the U.S. experienced widespread labor unrest and fear of communist influence, leading to the First Red Scare (1919–1920).
4. Health Crisis:
   • The 1918 influenza pandemic killed millions globally, including over 675,000 Americans, further straining the nation during the war.

Legacy

1. Progressive Domestic Reforms:
   • Wilson’s New Freedom policies reshaped the economy, curbed monopolies, and empowered workers.
2. World War I Leadership:
   • His leadership during World War I elevated the U.S. to a central role in global affairs.
3. League of Nations Vision:
   • Although the League failed without U.S. support, it laid the groundwork for future international organizations like the United Nations.